Summary
Smith dissects commercial treaties between nations, revealing how these deals often benefit the few at the expense of the many. When one country gives another special trading privileges—like lower tariffs or exclusive access—it creates a monopoly that helps foreign merchants while hurting domestic consumers who must pay higher prices. Smith uses the famous 1703 treaty between England and Portugal as his prime example. England agreed to buy Portuguese wine at reduced tariffs in exchange for Portugal buying English wool. While this sounds mutually beneficial, Smith shows how England actually got the worse deal. The treaty was celebrated because Portugal paid England in gold from Brazil, creating the illusion of wealth. But Smith argues this gold trade was actually inefficient—England would have been better off trading directly for the goods it needed rather than taking a roundabout route through Portuguese gold. He reveals how the government's policy of free coinage (minting coins without charge) was really a subsidy to the Bank of England, not a public benefit. Throughout, Smith demonstrates how policies that appear to strengthen national wealth often just transfer money from ordinary citizens to special interests. His analysis of currency, seignorage (minting fees), and the melting down of coins shows how even technical monetary policies have winners and losers. The chapter serves as a masterclass in looking beyond surface appearances to understand who really benefits from economic policies.
Coming Up in Chapter 27
Next, Smith turns his attention to one of the most contentious economic topics of his era: colonies. He'll examine whether these overseas territories truly enrich the mother country or simply create expensive burdens disguised as assets.
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An excerpt from the original text.(~500 words)
OF TREATIES OF COMMERCE. When a nation binds itself by treaty, either to permit the entry of certain goods from one foreign country which it prohibits from all others, or to exempt the goods of one country from duties to which it subjects those of all others, the country, or at least the merchants and manufacturers of the country, whose commerce is so favoured, must necessarily derive great advantage from the treaty. Those merchants and manufacturers enjoy a sort of monopoly in the country which is so indulgent to them. That country becomes a market, both more extensive and more advantageous for their goods: more extensive, because the goods of other nations being either excluded or subjected to heavier duties, it takes off a greater quantity of theirs; more advantageous, because the merchants of the favoured country, enjoying a sort of monopoly there, will often sell their goods for a better price than if exposed to the free competition of all other nations. Such treaties, however, though they may be advantageous to the merchants and manufacturers of the favoured, are necessarily disadvantageous to those of the favouring country. A monopoly is thus granted against them to a foreign nation; and they must frequently buy the foreign goods they have occasion for, dearer than if the free competition of other nations was admitted. That part of its own produce with which such a nation purchases foreign goods, must consequently be sold cheaper; because, when two things are exchanged for one another, the cheapness of the one is a necessary consequence, or rather is the same thing, with the dearness of the other. The exchangeable value of its annual produce, therefore, is likely to be diminished by every such treaty. This diminution, however, can scarce amount to any positive loss, but only to a lessening of the gain which it might otherwise make. Though it sells its goods cheaper than it otherwise might do, it will not probably sell them for less than they cost; nor, as in the case of bounties, for a price which will not replace the capital employed in bringing them to market, together with the ordinary profits of stock. The trade could not go on long if it did. Even the favouring country, therefore, may still gain by the trade, though less than if there was a free competition. Some treaties of commerce, however, have been supposed advantageous, upon principles very different from these; and a commercial country has sometimes granted a monopoly of this kind, against itself, to certain goods of a foreign nation, because it expected, that in the whole commerce between them, it would annually sell more than it would buy, and that a balance in gold and silver would be annually returned to it. It is upon this principle that the treaty of commerce between England and Portugal, concluded in 1703 by Mr Methuen, has been so much commended. The following is a literal translation of that treaty, which consists of three articles...
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Intelligence Amplifier™ Analysis
The Road of Hidden Winners - When 'Good Deals' Mask Who Really Benefits
Complex arrangements presented as mutually beneficial actually funnel wealth from many to few while hiding the transfer mechanism.
Why This Matters
Connect literature to life
This chapter teaches how to trace financial flows through complex arrangements to identify real winners and losers.
Practice This Today
This week, notice when someone explains a policy or deal as 'good for everyone'—ask who benefits immediately and directly versus who pays costs that might be hidden or delayed.
Now let's explore the literary elements.
Terms to Know
Commercial Treaty
A formal agreement between countries that gives special trading privileges to one nation over others. These deals often involve reduced tariffs, exclusive access to markets, or preferential treatment for certain goods.
Modern Usage:
Like when the US gives China 'most favored nation' status, or when trade deals like NAFTA give member countries advantages over non-members.
Monopoly Privilege
When a government gives one group exclusive rights to sell something, eliminating competition. Smith shows how treaties create these privileges for foreign merchants at the expense of domestic consumers.
Modern Usage:
Similar to how cable companies get exclusive contracts with apartment buildings, or how pharmaceutical companies get patent protection that keeps generic drugs out.
Seignorage
The profit a government makes from minting coins - the difference between the face value of money and what it costs to produce. Smith reveals how this seemingly technical policy actually benefits special interests.
Modern Usage:
Like how the Federal Reserve profits from printing money, or how cryptocurrency miners profit from creating new digital coins.
Free Coinage
A government policy of minting coins without charging fees to the person bringing in gold or silver. Smith shows this wasn't really 'free' - it was a hidden subsidy to banks and wealthy merchants.
Modern Usage:
Similar to how 'free' government services often benefit corporations more than regular people, like tax breaks that are supposed to help everyone but mainly help the wealthy.
Balance of Trade
The difference between what a country exports versus what it imports. Politicians often obsess over this number, but Smith shows it can be misleading about actual economic health.
Modern Usage:
Like how politicians today talk about trade deficits with China as if they're automatically bad, when the real question is whether consumers are getting good value.
Mercantile System
The economic theory that national wealth comes from accumulating gold and silver, and that trade is a zero-sum game where one country's gain must be another's loss. Smith systematically dismantles this thinking.
Modern Usage:
Similar to how some people think economic success means 'beating' other countries, or that immigrants 'take' jobs rather than creating economic growth.
Characters in This Chapter
The English Merchant
Beneficiary of treaty privileges
Represents merchants who profit from special government deals that give them advantages over competitors. Smith shows how they lobby for policies that help them while hurting consumers.
Modern Equivalent:
The corporate lobbyist who gets special tax breaks
The Portuguese Wine Producer
Foreign beneficiary of trade privileges
Benefits from the 1703 treaty that gives Portuguese wine preferential access to English markets. Represents how international deals often favor producers over consumers.
Modern Equivalent:
The foreign manufacturer who gets special trade deals
The English Consumer
Hidden victim of trade policies
Forced to pay higher prices because treaties eliminate competition. Smith shows how ordinary people bear the cost of policies designed to help special interests.
Modern Equivalent:
The regular person paying more because of corporate welfare
The Bank of England
Institutional beneficiary
Profits from government policies like free coinage that appear to benefit the public but actually subsidize wealthy institutions. Represents how big institutions capture government benefits.
Modern Equivalent:
The too-big-to-fail bank getting government bailouts
Key Quotes & Analysis
"A monopoly is thus granted against them to a foreign nation; and they must frequently buy the foreign goods they have occasion for, dearer than if the free competition of other nations was admitted."
Context: Smith explaining how commercial treaties hurt the country that grants special privileges
This reveals Smith's core insight that policies sold as helping the nation often hurt ordinary citizens. He shows how eliminating competition always leads to higher prices for consumers.
In Today's Words:
When the government gives one company special deals, everyone else gets screwed and has to pay more.
"Such treaties, however, though they may be advantageous to the merchants and manufacturers of the favoured, are necessarily disadvantageous to those of the favouring country."
Context: Smith analyzing who really wins and loses from trade deals
Smith cuts through political rhetoric to show the actual distribution of costs and benefits. He demonstrates how policies are often sold as mutual benefits when they're really transfers from many to few.
In Today's Words:
These deals might help some businesses, but they definitely hurt the country that's giving out the special treatment.
"The government, therefore, when it defrays the expense of coinage, not only incurs some small expense, but loses some small revenue which it might derive from a proper duty or seignorage."
Context: Smith explaining how 'free' government services often hide subsidies to the wealthy
This shows Smith's method of following the money to see who really benefits. What looks like a public service is actually a transfer to banks and merchants who deal in large amounts of precious metals.
In Today's Words:
When the government says something is 'free,' somebody else is paying for it - and it's usually not the people who benefit most.
Thematic Threads
Deception
In This Chapter
Commercial treaties mask wealth transfers through complexity and misdirection about who truly benefits
Development
Introduced here
In Your Life:
You see this when companies explain why complicated fee structures or policies are 'better for customers.'
Class
In This Chapter
Ordinary citizens bear hidden costs of policies that enrich merchants and special interests
Development
Continues Smith's theme of how economic policies affect different social classes
In Your Life:
You experience this when 'economic development' in your area raises your costs while benefiting developers.
Power
In This Chapter
Those with influence shape trade policies and monetary systems to their advantage while appearing to serve national interests
Development
Builds on earlier analysis of how merchant influence distorts economic policy
In Your Life:
You encounter this when industry lobbying shapes regulations that affect your daily life and costs.
Illusion
In This Chapter
The appearance of wealth through gold imports masks the inefficiency and true cost of the arrangement
Development
Introduced here
In Your Life:
You face this when impressive-sounding benefits packages or deals hide significant drawbacks or costs.
Systems
In This Chapter
Monetary policies like free coinage create hidden subsidies within complex financial systems
Development
Introduced here
In Your Life:
You navigate this when trying to understand how banking fees, insurance networks, or subscription services really work.
You now have the context. Time to form your own thoughts.
Discussion Questions
- 1
Smith shows how the England-Portugal trade treaty looked good on paper but actually hurt England. What made this deal seem beneficial when it wasn't?
analysis • surface - 2
Why did taking Portuguese gold instead of trading directly for goods make England worse off, even though gold seems more valuable?
analysis • medium - 3
Where do you see this pattern today - deals that sound win-win but actually benefit some people at others' expense?
application • medium - 4
When someone offers you a complex arrangement that's supposedly good for everyone, what questions would you ask to figure out who really benefits?
application • deep - 5
What does this chapter reveal about why people often support policies that work against their own interests?
reflection • deep
Critical Thinking Exercise
Follow the Money Trail
Think of a recent 'partnership' or 'initiative' in your workplace, community, or that you've heard about in the news. Map out who benefits directly and immediately versus who pays the costs. Look for hidden middlemen, extra steps, or complicated processes that might obscure where money and benefits actually flow.
Consider:
- •Who profits right away versus who might benefit 'eventually'?
- •What costs are obvious versus hidden or spread out over time?
- •Could this arrangement be simpler, and if so, why isn't it?
Journaling Prompt
Write about a time when you agreed to something complex that seemed beneficial but later realized you got the worse end of the deal. What warning signs did you miss?
Coming Up Next...
Chapter 27: The Colonial System Exposed
The coming pages reveal colonial monopolies actually harm both mother countries and colonies, and teach us the pursuit of gold and silver led to economic distortions. These discoveries help us navigate similar situations in our own lives.