Summary
Tolstoy steps back from the story to tackle a fundamental question: what is power, really? He dismantles three common explanations historians use to explain why millions of people follow one person's orders. The first says people always transfer their will to chosen rulers—but this can't explain why some leaders get overthrown while others don't. The second claims people conditionally delegate power based on certain conditions—but historians can never agree on what those conditions are, and the theory breaks down when examining actual history. The third suggests leaders express the people's will, but then reduces all human complexity to vague abstractions like 'progress' or 'civilization.' Tolstoy shows how each theory creates more problems than it solves. He argues that focusing on famous individuals—kings, generals, philosophers—completely misses the real forces that move entire populations. The Crusades happened not because of what popes and knights did, but because of unknown forces that drove ordinary people eastward. When those forces disappeared, the movement stopped, regardless of what leaders wanted. This chapter reveals Tolstoy's frustration with how history gets written and taught. Instead of understanding the real dynamics of human societies, we get stories about great men that explain nothing about why regular people act as they do. It's a call to look beyond surface explanations and celebrity figures to understand the deeper currents that shape our world.
Coming Up in Chapter 358
Having demolished conventional explanations of power, Tolstoy will present his own theory of what really drives historical events—and it's not what you'd expect from traditional history books.
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An excerpt from the original text.(~500 words)
Having abandoned the conception of the ancients as to the divine subjection of the will of a nation to some chosen man and the subjection of that man’s will to the Deity, history cannot without contradictions take a single step till it has chosen one of two things: either a return to the former belief in the direct intervention of the Deity in human affairs or a definite explanation of the meaning of the force producing historical events and termed “power.” A return to the first is impossible, the belief has been destroyed; and so it is essential to explain what is meant by power. Napoleon ordered an army to be raised and go to war. We are so accustomed to that idea and have become so used to it that the question: why did six hundred thousand men go to fight when Napoleon uttered certain words, seems to us senseless. He had the power and so what he ordered was done. This reply is quite satisfactory if we believe that the power was given him by God. But as soon as we do not admit that, it becomes essential to determine what is this power of one man over others. It cannot be the direct physical power of a strong man over a weak one—a domination based on the application or threat of physical force, like the power of Hercules; nor can it be based on the effect of moral force, as in their simplicity some historians think who say that the leading figures in history are heroes, that is, men gifted with a special strength of soul and mind called genius. This power cannot be based on the predominance of moral strength, for, not to mention heroes such as Napoleon about whose moral qualities opinions differ widely, history shows us that neither a Louis XI nor a Metternich, who ruled over millions of people, had any particular moral qualities, but on the contrary were generally morally weaker than any of the millions they ruled over. If the source of power lies neither in the physical nor in the moral qualities of him who possesses it, it must evidently be looked for elsewhere—in the relation to the people of the man who wields the power. And that is how power is understood by the science of jurisprudence, that exchange bank of history which offers to exchange history’s understanding of power for true gold. Power is the collective will of the people transferred, by expressed or tacit consent, to their chosen rulers. In the domain of jurisprudence, which consists of discussions of how a state and power might be arranged were it possible for all that to be arranged, it is all very clear; but when applied to history that definition of power needs explanation. The science of jurisprudence regards the state and power as the ancients regarded fire—namely, as something existing absolutely. But for history, the state and power are merely phenomena, just as for modern physics fire is...
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Intelligence Amplifier™ Analysis
The Road of False Explanations - Why We Mistake Stories for Understanding
We create simple stories about complex systems by focusing on visible individuals while missing the invisible forces that actually drive behavior.
Why This Matters
Connect literature to life
This chapter teaches how to distinguish between visible symptoms (difficult people) and invisible causes (systemic pressures).
Practice This Today
This week, notice when someone blames an individual for a complex problem—then ask what systems or pressures might be driving that person's behavior.
Now let's explore the literary elements.
Terms to Know
Divine Right of Kings
The old belief that rulers get their power directly from God, so questioning them means questioning God himself. This made it easy to explain why people obeyed - God chose the leader, end of story.
Modern Usage:
We see echoes when politicians claim God is on their side or when people treat certain leaders as if they can do no wrong.
Transfer of Will
The idea that people voluntarily give up their individual decision-making power to let one person decide for everyone. It's like saying millions of people all agreed to let Napoleon make choices for them.
Modern Usage:
This is what we do when we vote - we transfer some of our decision-making power to elected officials.
Historical Determinism
The belief that big historical events happen because of larger forces beyond any individual's control. Tolstoy argues that the real drivers of history aren't famous people but invisible social currents.
Modern Usage:
Like how social media trends spread not because one influencer started them, but because millions of people were already ready for that message.
Great Man Theory
The common way of explaining history by focusing on famous leaders and their decisions. Tolstoy thinks this completely misses the point about what actually moves societies.
Modern Usage:
When we credit Steve Jobs for smartphones instead of recognizing the thousands of engineers and social conditions that made them possible.
Moral Force
Power that comes from people believing in a leader's righteousness or wisdom rather than fearing their physical strength. It's influence through inspiration rather than intimidation.
Modern Usage:
How certain celebrities or activists can mobilize millions of followers through their message alone, without any official authority.
The Crusades
Medieval religious wars where Europeans traveled to the Middle East, supposedly to reclaim holy lands. Tolstoy uses them as an example of mass movement that historians wrongly attribute to individual leaders.
Modern Usage:
Like how migration patterns or social movements happen due to economic and social pressures, not because one person told everyone to move.
Characters in This Chapter
Napoleon
Historical example
Tolstoy uses Napoleon as the perfect example of how we misunderstand power. We think six hundred thousand men followed him because he was special, but Tolstoy argues this explains nothing about the real forces at work.
Modern Equivalent:
The CEO who gets credit for company success when it was really market conditions and employee work
Key Quotes & Analysis
"Napoleon ordered an army to be raised and go to war. We are so accustomed to that idea and have become so used to it that the question: why did six hundred thousand men go to fight when Napoleon uttered certain words, seems to us senseless."
Context: Tolstoy is challenging our basic assumptions about how power works
This quote reveals how we accept power relationships without questioning them. We're so used to the idea that leaders give orders and people follow that we never ask the deeper question of why this actually happens.
In Today's Words:
We're so used to bosses giving orders that we never stop to ask why millions of people actually show up to work every day.
"He had the power and so what he ordered was done. This reply is quite satisfactory if we believe that the power was given him by God."
Context: Tolstoy is showing how circular our explanations of power usually are
This exposes the lazy thinking behind most explanations of authority. Saying someone has power because they have power explains nothing - it's only satisfying if you believe in divine appointment.
In Today's Words:
Saying 'because I'm the boss' only works if you think God personally chose all the managers.
"It cannot be the direct physical power of a strong man over a weak one—a domination based on the application or threat of physical force, like the power of Hercules."
Context: Tolstoy is systematically eliminating simple explanations for political power
He's pointing out that real political power can't be based on physical strength alone - one person can't physically force millions to obey. There has to be something else at work.
In Today's Words:
The president can't personally arm-wrestle three hundred million Americans into submission.
Thematic Threads
Power
In This Chapter
Tolstoy dissects how historians misunderstand power by focusing on rulers instead of the forces that actually move populations
Development
Evolved from earlier scenes of military command to this philosophical examination of power's true nature
In Your Life:
You might see this when wondering why your supervisor makes certain decisions without considering the pressures from above
Class
In This Chapter
The chapter reveals how elite historians create theories that ignore the experiences and motivations of ordinary people
Development
Builds on previous themes about how different social classes experience the same events completely differently
In Your Life:
You might notice this when news explanations for social problems don't match what you see in your own community
Identity
In This Chapter
Tolstoy questions whether individual leaders truly shape history or are shaped by forces beyond their control
Development
Connects to earlier character struggles between personal agency and social expectations
In Your Life:
You might recognize this when feeling like your choices are limited by circumstances you didn't create
Social Expectations
In This Chapter
The expectation that historians must provide simple explanations for complex social movements
Development
Reflects the ongoing theme of how society demands clear answers to unclear questions
In Your Life:
You might see this when people expect you to have simple explanations for complicated family or workplace situations
Human Relationships
In This Chapter
The relationship between leaders and followers is revealed as far more complex than simple command and obedience
Development
Deepens earlier explorations of how people actually influence each other in families and social groups
In Your Life:
You might notice this in how real influence in your workplace or family operates differently than the official hierarchy suggests
You now have the context. Time to form your own thoughts.
Discussion Questions
- 1
What are the three explanations for power that Tolstoy dismantles, and why does he say each one fails to explain how societies actually work?
analysis • surface - 2
Why does Tolstoy argue that focusing on famous leaders like kings and generals actually prevents us from understanding historical events?
analysis • medium - 3
Think about a workplace or family problem you've witnessed. How did people explain what was happening, and what invisible forces might have been the real cause?
application • medium - 4
When you hear someone blame a single person for a complex problem, what questions could you ask to uncover the deeper systems at work?
application • deep - 5
What does this chapter reveal about why we prefer simple stories about complex problems, even when those stories don't actually help us?
reflection • deep
Critical Thinking Exercise
Map the Hidden System
Choose a recurring problem in your workplace, family, or community that people usually blame on specific individuals. Draw or write out what you see: Who gets blamed? What visible behaviors do people focus on? Then dig deeper: What pressures, systems, or constraints might be creating these behaviors? What would change if you addressed the system instead of blaming the person?
Consider:
- •Look for patterns that repeat even when different people are involved
- •Consider financial pressures, time constraints, or conflicting expectations
- •Ask what would happen if you removed the 'problem person' but left everything else the same
Journaling Prompt
Write about a time when you were blamed for something that felt bigger than your individual choices. What systems or pressures were you responding to that others couldn't see?
Coming Up Next...
Chapter 358: The Myth of Great Man Leadership
What lies ahead teaches us believing in singular powerful leaders can be misleading, and shows us to recognize the difference between authority and actual influence. These patterns appear in literature and life alike.