Summary
Montaigne challenges everything we think we know about civilization and barbarism through his encounter with indigenous people from the New World. Using testimony from a servant who lived in Brazil, he paints a picture of a society that seems more natural and honest than European civilization. These people live simply, share everything, have no concept of lying or greed, and conduct their wars with honor rather than conquest. When Montaigne describes their practice of ritual cannibalism, he forces us to confront an uncomfortable truth: while we're horrified by their eating of enemies after death, we torture people while they're still alive and call it justice. The essay's climax comes when three indigenous visitors to the French court observe European society and ask two devastating questions: Why do so many strong men obey one weak child-king? And why do the poor tolerate such extreme inequality when they could easily overthrow the rich? Montaigne uses these outsider perspectives to expose the arbitrary nature of what we consider 'normal' or 'civilized.' He argues that we're quick to call others barbarous simply because their customs differ from ours, while remaining blind to our own cruelties and contradictions. The essay becomes a mirror, forcing readers to examine whether true savagery lies in eating your enemies or in the systematic injustices we accept as civilized society.
Coming Up in Chapter 31
Having questioned human customs and civilization, Montaigne turns his philosophical lens toward an even more challenging target: how we interpret divine will and God's ordinances, exploring the dangerous territory where human judgment meets religious authority.
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An excerpt from the original text.(~500 words)
F CANNIBALS When King Pyrrhus invaded Italy, having viewed and considered the order of the army the Romans sent out to meet him; “I know not,” said he, “what kind of barbarians” (for so the Greeks called all other nations) “these may be; but the disposition of this army that I see has nothing of barbarism in it.”--[Plutarch, Life of Pyrrhus, c. 8.]--As much said the Greeks of that which Flaminius brought into their country; and Philip, beholding from an eminence the order and distribution of the Roman camp formed in his kingdom by Publius Sulpicius Galba, spake to the same effect. By which it appears how cautious men ought to be of taking things upon trust from vulgar opinion, and that we are to judge by the eye of reason, and not from common report. I long had a man in my house that lived ten or twelve years in the New World, discovered in these latter days, and in that part of it where Villegaignon landed,--[At Brazil, in 1557.]--which he called Antarctic France. This discovery of so vast a country seems to be of very great consideration. I cannot be sure, that hereafter there may not be another, so many wiser men than we having been deceived in this. I am afraid our eyes are bigger than our bellies, and that we have more curiosity than capacity; for we grasp at all, but catch nothing but wind. Plato brings in Solon,--[In Timaeus.]--telling a story that he had heard from the priests of Sais in Egypt, that of old, and before the Deluge, there was a great island called Atlantis, situate directly at the mouth of the straits of Gibraltar, which contained more countries than both Africa and Asia put together; and that the kings of that country, who not only possessed that Isle, but extended their dominion so far into the continent that they had a country of Africa as far as Egypt, and extending in Europe to Tuscany, attempted to encroach even upon Asia, and to subjugate all the nations that border upon the Mediterranean Sea, as far as the Black Sea; and to that effect overran all Spain, the Gauls, and Italy, so far as to penetrate into Greece, where the Athenians stopped them: but that some time after, both the Athenians, and they and their island, were swallowed by the Flood. It is very likely that this extreme irruption and inundation of water made wonderful changes and alterations in the habitations of the earth, as ‘tis said that the sea then divided Sicily from Italy-- “Haec loca, vi quondam et vasta convulsa ruina, Dissiluisse ferunt, quum protenus utraque tellus Una foret” [“These lands, they say, formerly with violence and vast desolation convulsed, burst asunder, where erewhile were.”--AEneid, iii. 414.] Cyprus from Syria, the isle of Negropont from the continent of Beeotia, and elsewhere united lands that were separate before, by filling up the channel betwixt them with sand and mud: “Sterilisque diu palus, aptaque remis,...
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Intelligence Amplifier™ Analysis
The Road of Cultural Blindness - When Normal Becomes Invisible
We become blind to our own system's cruelties while clearly seeing the barbarism of others.
Why This Matters
Connect literature to life
This chapter teaches how to recognize when familiarity makes us blind to our own contradictions and cruelties.
Practice This Today
This week, notice when you dismiss criticism by focusing on the critic's background rather than their actual points—that's cultural blindness protecting itself.
Now let's explore the literary elements.
Terms to Know
Noble Savage
The idea that people living in 'primitive' societies are naturally good and pure, uncorrupted by civilization. Montaigne uses this concept to contrast indigenous peoples with Europeans, suggesting the 'savages' might actually be more civilized than the civilized.
Modern Usage:
We see this when people romanticize rural life or assume people from less developed countries are somehow more authentic or honest than city dwellers.
Cultural Relativism
The idea that we can't judge other cultures by our own standards - what seems normal to us might seem barbaric to them, and vice versa. Montaigne argues we call others 'barbarians' simply because they're different from us.
Modern Usage:
This shows up in debates about immigration, foreign customs, or when we assume our way of doing things is automatically the 'right' way.
Vulgar Opinion
Common beliefs held by ordinary people without real evidence or thought. Montaigne warns against accepting popular assumptions about other cultures without examining them critically.
Modern Usage:
Today this is like believing stereotypes about other countries or groups based on what you see on TV or hear from friends, rather than actual experience.
Cannibalism
The practice of eating human flesh, which the Brazilian indigenous people practiced ritually on enemies killed in war. Montaigne uses this shocking example to challenge what we consider truly barbaric behavior.
Modern Usage:
We use this as the ultimate example of savage behavior, but Montaigne would ask us to compare it to our own accepted cruelties like torture or execution.
Natural State
How humans live when not shaped by complex civilization - closer to nature, with simpler social structures. Montaigne suggests this might be superior to our artificial, complicated society.
Modern Usage:
This appears in movements promoting organic food, minimalism, or getting 'back to basics' - the idea that simpler is better and more authentic.
Barbarism
Savage, uncivilized behavior. Montaigne flips this concept, suggesting that what Europeans call civilization might actually be more barbaric than what they call savage.
Modern Usage:
We throw this word around about any behavior we find shocking or primitive, often without examining whether our own behavior might seem equally barbaric to outsiders.
Characters in This Chapter
The Brazilian Servant
Eyewitness narrator
A man who lived in Brazil for ten years and serves as Montaigne's source for information about indigenous life. His testimony forms the foundation of Montaigne's argument about the nobility of 'savage' society.
Modern Equivalent:
The coworker who lived overseas and gives you the real story about what life is actually like there
The Three Indigenous Visitors
Cultural critics
Three Brazilian natives brought to the French court who observe European society with fresh eyes. Their questions about inequality and monarchy expose the absurdities of civilized life.
Modern Equivalent:
Foreign exchange students who ask uncomfortable questions about why Americans accept things like medical bankruptcy or student debt
King Pyrrhus
Historical example
Ancient king who recognized that Romans weren't barbarians despite being foreigners. Montaigne uses him to show that wise people judge by observation, not prejudice.
Modern Equivalent:
The boss who actually listens to employees from different backgrounds instead of dismissing their ideas
Villegaignon
Explorer/colonizer
French explorer who established a colony in Brazil, bringing European civilization to the New World. Represents the European perspective that sees indigenous people as savage.
Modern Equivalent:
The corporate executive who moves into a small town and assumes the locals don't know how to do business properly
Key Quotes & Analysis
"I am afraid our eyes are bigger than our bellies, and that we have more curiosity than capacity; for we grasp at all, but catch nothing but wind."
Context: Reflecting on European exploration and the discovery of the New World
Montaigne warns that humans tend to bite off more than they can chew, especially when encountering new cultures. We're eager to explore and judge, but we lack the wisdom to truly understand what we find.
In Today's Words:
We want to know everything about everyone, but we're not actually good at understanding what we learn.
"We are to judge by the eye of reason, and not from common report."
Context: Arguing that we shouldn't accept popular opinions about other cultures without evidence
This is Montaigne's central message about critical thinking. Instead of believing what everyone says about 'barbarians,' we should look at the evidence and think for ourselves.
In Today's Words:
Don't believe everything you hear - use your own brain to figure out what's actually true.
"I find that there is nothing barbarous and savage in this nation, by anything that I can gather, excepting that everyone gives the title of barbarism to everything that is not in use in his own country."
Context: Describing the indigenous Brazilian society after hearing his servant's account
This is the essay's knockout punch - Montaigne argues that we call things 'barbaric' simply because they're different from our customs, not because they're actually worse.
In Today's Words:
These people aren't savage at all - we just call anything different from our way of life 'barbaric.'
Thematic Threads
Class
In This Chapter
Indigenous visitors question why the poor tolerate extreme inequality when they could easily overthrow the rich
Development
Evolved to show how class divisions appear arbitrary and unjust to outside observers
In Your Life:
You might notice how workplace hierarchies that feel normal to you seem absurd to friends in different industries
Social Expectations
In This Chapter
Europeans judge cannibalism as savage while practicing torture, showing how cultural norms blind us to our own cruelties
Development
Deepened to reveal how social expectations create moral blindness within groups
In Your Life:
You might realize you judge other families' dysfunction while missing your own family's harmful patterns
Identity
In This Chapter
Montaigne questions the very concept of 'civilized' versus 'barbarous' as arbitrary labels based on familiarity
Development
Expanded to show identity as culturally constructed rather than inherently meaningful
In Your Life:
You might recognize how your professional identity makes certain behaviors feel justified that outsiders see as problematic
Human Relationships
In This Chapter
Indigenous society shares everything and has no concept of lying, contrasting with European competition and deception
Development
Introduced here as alternative models for human connection and trust
In Your Life:
You might notice how your relationships involve normalized dishonesty that would shock people from more direct cultures
You now have the context. Time to form your own thoughts.
Discussion Questions
- 1
What shocked the indigenous visitors most about French society, and what does their confusion reveal about what we consider normal?
analysis • surface - 2
Why does Montaigne argue that Europeans calling others 'barbarous' is hypocritical? What examples does he use?
analysis • medium - 3
Where do you see this pattern of cultural blindness in your own workplace, community, or family—where harmful practices are normalized because they're familiar?
application • medium - 4
How could you deliberately seek outside perspectives to identify blind spots in your own life or organization?
application • deep - 5
What does Montaigne's essay suggest about the difference between being civilized and being truly humane?
reflection • deep
Critical Thinking Exercise
The Outsider's Eye
Choose a situation you're deeply familiar with—your workplace, your neighborhood, your family dynamics. Write a brief description of what you think a complete outsider would find shocking, confusing, or unfair about this situation. Then flip perspectives: identify something about another group or culture that you judge harshly, and try to understand the logic behind their practices.
Consider:
- •Focus on practices you've stopped noticing because they're 'just how things are done'
- •Consider power dynamics that might be invisible to insiders but obvious to outsiders
- •Ask yourself what you're defending simply because it's familiar, not because it's right
Journaling Prompt
Write about a time when someone from outside your normal circle pointed out something problematic that you hadn't noticed. How did their perspective change your understanding? What other blind spots might you still have?
Coming Up Next...
Chapter 31: Don't Pretend to Know God's Mind
Having questioned human customs and civilization, Montaigne turns his philosophical lens toward an even more challenging target: how we interpret divine will and God's ordinances, exploring the dangerous territory where human judgment meets religious authority.
