Summary
Smith tackles the philosophical troublemakers—thinkers who claim that virtue doesn't really exist and that all human behavior is secretly selfish. He focuses on two main culprits: the Duke of Rochefoucault and Dr. Mandeville, who argued that everything we call 'good' is actually just disguised self-interest or vanity. According to Mandeville, when you help someone, you're really just showing off for praise. When you're generous, you're actually feeding your ego. Smith acknowledges these cynical views contain a grain of truth—we do care about how others see us, and we do get satisfaction from doing good. But he argues these philosophers make a crucial error: they take one aspect of human nature and claim it explains everything. Smith carefully distinguishes between different types of motivation. There's a huge difference between wanting respect for something genuinely praiseworthy versus wanting praise for something shallow or fake. The person who acts virtuously partly because they want to be seen as virtuous isn't the same as someone who just wants attention at any cost. Smith warns that while these cynical systems might seem clever, they're dangerous because they give people permission to abandon moral standards entirely. If everything is selfish anyway, why try to be good? He shows how these 'licentious systems' destroy the foundation of ethics by erasing the real distinctions between right and wrong behavior. The chapter serves as both a philosophical refutation and a practical warning about the seductive appeal of cynicism.
Coming Up in Chapter 37
Having demolished the cynics who claim virtue is fake, Smith turns to examine the various theories about what makes us approve or disapprove of actions in the first place. Is it self-interest, reason, or something else entirely that guides our moral judgments?
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An excerpt from the original text.(~500 words)
Of licentious systems. All those systems, which I have hitherto given an account of, suppose that there is a real and essential distinction between vice and virtue, whatever these qualities may consist in. There is a real and essential difference between the propriety and impropriety of any affection, between benevolence and any other principle of action, between real prudence and short-sighted folly or precipitate rashness. In the main too all of them contribute to encourage the praise-worthy, and to discourage the blameable disposition. It may be true perhaps, of some of them, that they tend, in some measure, to break the balance of the affections, and to give the mind a particular bias to some principles of action, beyond the proportion that is due to them. The ancient systems which place virtue in propriety, seem chiefly to recommend the great, the awful, and the respectable virtues, the virtues of self-government and self-command; fortitude, magnanimity, independency upon fortune, the contempt of all outward accidents, of pain, poverty, exile, and death. It is in these 332great exertions that the noblest propriety of conduct is displayed. The soft, the amiable, the gentle virtues, all the virtues of indulgent humanity are, in comparison, but little insisted upon, and seem, on the contrary, by the Stoics in particular, to have been often regarded as mere weaknesses which it behoved a wise man not to harbour in his breast. The benevolent system, on the other hand, while it fosters and encourages all those milder virtues in the highest degree, seems entirely to neglect the more awful and respectable qualities of the mind. It even denies them the appellation of virtues. It calls them moral abilities, and treats them as qualities which do not deserve the same sort of esteem and approbation, that is due to what is properly denominated virtue. All those principles of action which aim only at our own interest, it treats, if that be possible, still worse. So far from having any merit of their own, they diminish, it pretends, the merit of benevolence, when they co-operate with it: and prudence, it is asserted, when employed only in promoting private interest, can never even be imagined a virtue. That system, again, which makes virtue consist in prudence only, while it gives the highest encouragement to the habits of caution, vigilance, sobriety, and judicious moderation, seems to degrade equally both the amiable and respectable virtues, and to strip the former of all their beauty, and the latter of all their grandeur. But notwithstanding these defects, the general tendency of each of those three systems is to encourage the best and most laudable habits of the human mind: 333and it were well for society, if, either mankind in general, or even those few who pretend to live according to any philosophical rule, were to regulate their conduct by the precepts of any one of them. We may learn from each of them something that is both valuable and peculiar. If it was possible, by precept...
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Intelligence Amplifier™ Analysis
The Road of Cynical Permission - How Smart-Sounding Excuses Destroy Standards
Using sophisticated arguments about human nature as intellectual cover to abandon moral standards and justify selfish behavior.
Why This Matters
Connect literature to life
This chapter teaches how to spot when someone uses 'human nature' arguments to justify abandoning standards or behaving badly.
Practice This Today
Next time someone says 'everyone's selfish anyway' or 'that's just how people are,' ask: Is this insight being used to justify lowering expectations or avoiding responsibility?
Now let's explore the literary elements.
Terms to Know
Licentious systems
Philosophical theories that reject the idea of real moral standards, claiming all human behavior is secretly selfish. These systems give people permission to abandon ethics by arguing virtue doesn't actually exist.
Modern Usage:
We see this in cynical worldviews that claim everyone is 'just looking out for number one' or that all charity is really about tax breaks and social media likes.
The Duke of Rochefoucault's maxims
Cynical sayings that reduce all human goodness to disguised selfishness or vanity. Rochefoucault argued that what we call virtue is really just pride in fancy clothing.
Modern Usage:
This shows up in social media cynicism where people assume anyone doing good deeds is 'virtue signaling' for attention rather than genuinely caring.
Dr. Mandeville's system
The theory that private vices actually create public benefits, and that society runs on greed and selfishness rather than virtue. Mandeville claimed moral behavior was just sophisticated showing off.
Modern Usage:
We hear this in arguments that greed is good because it drives the economy, or that helping others is really just ego-boosting.
Propriety of conduct
Acting appropriately for your situation and relationships, showing the right emotions at the right time. It's about reading the room and responding with genuine feeling that fits the moment.
Modern Usage:
This is knowing when to be serious at a funeral, excited at a celebration, or supportive during someone's crisis - emotional intelligence in action.
Benevolent system
Philosophical approaches that emphasize kindness, compassion, and caring for others as the foundation of morality. These systems prioritize gentle virtues over harsh self-discipline.
Modern Usage:
We see this in modern emphasis on empathy, emotional support, and 'toxic positivity' - the idea that being nice is the highest virtue.
Stoic virtues
Ancient philosophy emphasizing self-control, emotional discipline, and independence from external circumstances. Stoics valued toughness and saw tender emotions as weaknesses to overcome.
Modern Usage:
This appears in 'tough love' parenting, military discipline, and the cultural pressure to 'suck it up' and not show vulnerability.
Praise-worthy disposition
A genuine character trait that deserves respect because it comes from real virtue, not from wanting attention or approval. The difference between authentic goodness and performing goodness.
Modern Usage:
This is the difference between someone who helps because they care versus someone who volunteers just to post about it on social media.
Characters in This Chapter
Duke of Rochefoucault
Philosophical antagonist
A French nobleman who wrote cynical maxims claiming all human virtue is disguised selfishness. Smith uses him as an example of how intelligent people can reach dangerous conclusions by oversimplifying human nature.
Modern Equivalent:
The smart pessimist who thinks they've figured out that everyone is fake
Dr. Mandeville
Philosophical antagonist
Author of 'The Fable of the Bees' who argued that society benefits from individual vices like greed and vanity. Smith criticizes his theory that private selfishness creates public good.
Modern Equivalent:
The economist who argues greed drives progress and caring about others is naive
The Stoics
Ancient philosophical school
Ancient philosophers who emphasized tough virtues like self-control and emotional discipline while dismissing gentler qualities like compassion as weaknesses that wise people should avoid.
Modern Equivalent:
The tough-love crowd who think emotions are for weaklings
The wise man (Stoic ideal)
Philosophical ideal
The Stoic vision of perfect humanity - someone completely independent, emotionally controlled, and unmoved by external circumstances. Smith suggests this ideal is too harsh and misses important human qualities.
Modern Equivalent:
The person who prides themselves on never needing anyone and never showing feelings
Key Quotes & Analysis
"All those systems, which I have hitherto given an account of, suppose that there is a real and essential distinction between vice and virtue"
Context: Smith is setting up his criticism of philosophers who deny moral standards exist
This establishes Smith's fundamental belief that right and wrong are real categories, not just social conventions or disguised selfishness. He's defending the possibility of genuine morality against cynical attacks.
In Today's Words:
Most serious thinkers agree there's a real difference between right and wrong
"The soft, the amiable, the gentle virtues, all the virtues of indulgent humanity are, in comparison, but little insisted upon"
Context: Describing how Stoic philosophy undervalues compassion and kindness
Smith criticizes the Stoic emphasis on tough virtues while dismissing tender ones. He argues that kindness and empathy are genuine virtues, not weaknesses to be overcome.
In Today's Words:
The Stoics didn't think much of being kind, gentle, or emotionally supportive
"It may be true perhaps, of some of them, that they tend, in some measure, to break the balance of the affections"
Context: Acknowledging that even good moral systems can go too far in one direction
Smith shows his balanced approach - even systems he generally supports can become problematic when taken to extremes. Moral life requires balancing different virtues, not choosing just one type.
In Today's Words:
Even the good approaches to ethics can get out of balance if you push them too hard
Thematic Threads
Intellectual Manipulation
In This Chapter
Philosophers use clever arguments to justify abandoning virtue by claiming all behavior is secretly selfish
Development
Introduced here as Smith directly confronts cynical philosophical systems
In Your Life:
You might see this when someone uses 'everyone does it' or 'that's just human nature' to justify cutting corners at work.
Mixed Motives
In This Chapter
Smith acknowledges people can act virtuously for multiple reasons including desire for recognition
Development
Builds on earlier discussions of how we naturally seek approval from others
In Your Life:
You experience this when you do good things that feel good and wonder if that makes you selfish.
False Equivalency
In This Chapter
Cynical systems claim all motivations are equally selfish, erasing important distinctions
Development
Introduced here as Smith's main criticism of these philosophical approaches
In Your Life:
You encounter this when people claim there's no difference between helping for praise versus helping from genuine care.
Social Standards
In This Chapter
Smith warns that cynical systems destroy the foundation of ethics by giving permission to abandon standards
Development
Connects to ongoing theme of how social expectations shape behavior
In Your Life:
You see this when workplace or family standards erode because 'everyone's just looking out for themselves anyway.'
Practical Consequences
In This Chapter
These philosophical ideas have real-world impact on how people behave and treat each other
Development
Reinforces Smith's focus on how moral philosophy affects daily life
In Your Life:
You experience this when cynical thinking spreads through your workplace or community, making cooperation harder.
You now have the context. Time to form your own thoughts.
Discussion Questions
- 1
According to Smith, what do philosophers like Mandeville claim about all virtuous behavior, and why does Smith think this view is dangerous?
analysis • surface - 2
Why does Smith argue there's an important difference between wanting respect for something genuinely good versus just wanting attention at any cost?
analysis • medium - 3
Where have you seen people use 'everyone's selfish anyway' or 'that's just human nature' to justify poor behavior at work, in families, or online?
application • medium - 4
When someone tries to convince you that 'everyone's just looking out for themselves,' how could you respond while acknowledging that people do have mixed motives?
application • deep - 5
What does this chapter teach us about the difference between understanding human flaws and using that understanding as an excuse to stop trying to do better?
reflection • deep
Critical Thinking Exercise
Spot the Cynical Permission Pattern
Think of a recent situation where someone justified questionable behavior by claiming 'that's just how people are' or 'everyone does it.' Write down what they said, then identify what true insight they might be using and how they're twisting it to avoid responsibility. Finally, rewrite their argument in a way that acknowledges human complexity without abandoning standards.
Consider:
- •Look for phrases like 'everyone's selfish,' 'that's just business,' or 'be realistic about human nature'
- •Notice whether the argument erases important distinctions between better and worse choices
- •Consider whether this thinking makes people feel permission to lower their own standards
Journaling Prompt
Write about a time when you were tempted to use cynical thinking to justify something you knew wasn't right. What was really going on, and how might you handle that situation differently now?
Coming Up Next...
Chapter 37: When Self-Interest Masquerades as Virtue
The coming pages reveal to spot when people claim virtue but are really protecting their own interests, and teach us true empathy requires genuinely putting yourself in someone else's shoes. These discoveries help us navigate similar situations in our own lives.