Summary
Smith examines Epicurus's controversial philosophy that all human behavior boils down to seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. According to this ancient Greek thinker, we don't pursue virtues like justice, courage, or temperance because they're inherently good - we pursue them because they're smart strategies for maximizing our happiness and minimizing our suffering. Epicurus argued that even our mental anguish comes from bodily concerns: we suffer more from remembering past pain or dreading future pain than from what we're actually experiencing right now. This means a wise person can endure almost anything by controlling their thoughts and expectations. Smith shows how this system makes every virtue a form of prudence - justice keeps us safe from others' revenge, courage helps us choose smaller risks to avoid bigger ones, and temperance helps us delay gratification for better outcomes later. While Smith acknowledges this philosophy has some truth (virtue often does lead to practical benefits), he finds it incomplete. Epicurus missed something crucial: people genuinely care about being respected and loved for their own sake, not just for the security it brings. We want to be worthy of esteem, not just to receive its benefits. Smith suggests this reveals a flaw in reducing all human motivation to pleasure-seeking - we have deeper drives toward genuine moral worth that can't be explained away as sophisticated selfishness.
Coming Up in Chapter 35
Smith turns from philosophers who reduced virtue to self-interest to those who elevated it to something higher - systems that make benevolence and care for others the foundation of all moral behavior.
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An excerpt from the original text.(~500 words)
Of those systems which make virtue consist in prudence. The most ancient of those systems which make virtue consist in prudence, and of which any considerable remains have come down to us, is that of Epicurus, who is said, however, to have borrowed all the leading principles of his philosophy, from some of those who had gone before him, particularly From Aristippus; though it is very probable, notwithstanding this allegation of his enemies, that at least his manner of applying those principles was altogether his own. According to Epicurus,[16] bodily pleasure and pain were the sole ultimate objects of natural desire and aversion. That they were always the natural objects of those passions, he thought required no 312proof. Pleasure might, indeed, appear sometimes to be avoided; not, however, because it was pleasure, but because, by the enjoyment of it, we should either forfeit some greater pleasure, or expose ourselves to some pain that was more to be avoided than this pleasure was to be desired. Pain, in the same manner, might appear sometimes to be eligible; not, however, because it was pain, but because by enduring it we might either avoid a still greater pain, or acquire some pleasure of much more importance. That bodily pain and pleasure, therefore, were always the natural objects of desire and aversion, was, he thought, abundantly evident. Nor was it less so, he imagined, that they were the sole ultimate objects of those passions. Whatever else was either desired or avoided was so, according to him, upon account of its tendency to produce one or other of those sensations. The tendency to procure pleasure rendered power and riches desirable, as the contrary tendency to produce pain made poverty and insignificancy the objects of aversion. Honour and reputation were valued, because the esteem and love of those we live with were of the greatest consequence both to procure pleasure and to defend us from pain. Ignominy and bad fame, on the contrary, were to be avoided, because the hatred, contempt, and resentment of those we lived with destroyed all security, and necessarily exposed us to the greatest bodily evils. 16. See Cicero de finibus, lib. i. Diogenes Laert. 1. x. All the pleasures and pains of the mind were, according to Epicurus, ultimately derived from those of the body. The mind was happy when it thought of the past pleasures of the body, and hoped for others to come: and it was miserable when it thought 313of the pains which the body had formerly endured, and dreaded the same or greater thereafter. But the pleasures and pains of the mind, though ultimately derived from those of the body, were vastly greater than their originals. The body felt only the sensation of the present instant, whereas the mind felt also the past and the future, the one by remembrance, the other by anticipation, and consequently both suffered and enjoyed much more. When we are under the greatest bodily pain, he observed, we shall always find, if...
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Intelligence Amplifier™ Analysis
The Road of Strategic Virtue - When Good Behavior Has Hidden Motives
People often choose moral behavior not from pure principle but because virtue serves their long-term self-interest better than vice.
Why This Matters
Connect literature to life
This chapter teaches how to recognize when people's virtuous behavior serves their self-interest without becoming cynical about all good actions.
Practice This Today
This week, notice when your own 'good' choices also benefit you personally—then keep making them anyway, because mixed motives don't cancel out positive results.
Now let's explore the literary elements.
Terms to Know
Epicurean philosophy
The belief that all human behavior is ultimately motivated by seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. Epicurus taught that even our highest virtues are just smart strategies for maximizing happiness and minimizing suffering.
Modern Usage:
We see this in self-help culture that reduces everything to 'what makes you happy' or business advice that says people only act from self-interest.
Prudence
Practical wisdom - the ability to make good decisions that benefit you in the long run. In this context, it means calculating the best way to achieve pleasure and avoid pain.
Modern Usage:
This shows up when we talk about 'playing it smart' or making strategic choices in career, relationships, or money management.
Ultimate objects of desire
The final goals that drive all our actions - what we really want deep down. Epicurus claimed these were always bodily pleasure and the absence of pain, even when we think we want something else.
Modern Usage:
Modern psychology debates whether humans have deeper motivations beyond feeling good and avoiding bad feelings.
Virtue as calculation
The idea that moral behaviors like honesty, courage, and justice aren't inherently good - they're just smart strategies for getting what we want while avoiding trouble.
Modern Usage:
This appears in workplace advice about being ethical because 'it's good for business' or relationship advice about kindness as a strategy.
Bodily vs mental pleasure
Epicurus argued that all mental suffering comes from physical concerns - we're either remembering past pain or worrying about future pain. Control your thoughts, control your happiness.
Modern Usage:
This echoes in mindfulness practices, cognitive behavioral therapy, and the idea that anxiety is just overthinking.
Moral sentiments
Our natural feelings about right and wrong - the emotions that guide our moral judgments. Smith argues these go deeper than just calculating pleasure and pain.
Modern Usage:
This is why we feel guilty even when no one will find out, or why we care about being genuinely good people, not just appearing good.
Characters in This Chapter
Epicurus
Ancient philosopher
The main figure Smith examines in this chapter. He created a complete system explaining all human behavior as pleasure-seeking and pain-avoidance, making every virtue a form of smart self-interest.
Modern Equivalent:
The life coach who reduces everything to 'follow your bliss'
Aristippus
Earlier philosopher
Mentioned as possibly influencing Epicurus's ideas. Represents the lineage of thinkers who saw pleasure as the highest good, though Smith notes Epicurus likely developed his own applications.
Modern Equivalent:
The mentor whose ideas get adapted by their student
Key Quotes & Analysis
"Bodily pleasure and pain were the sole ultimate objects of natural desire and aversion."
Context: Smith explaining the core of Epicurean philosophy
This quote captures the reductionist view that everything we do traces back to physical sensations. It's both the strength and weakness of this system - simple to understand but possibly too simple to explain human complexity.
In Today's Words:
Everything we want or avoid ultimately comes down to feeling good or bad physically.
"Pleasure might, indeed, appear sometimes to be avoided; not, however, because it was pleasure, but because, by the enjoyment of it, we should either forfeit some greater pleasure, or expose ourselves to some pain."
Context: Explaining how Epicureans account for seemingly self-denying behavior
This shows the sophisticated calculations behind Epicurean thinking. Even when we sacrifice, we're still ultimately serving our own interests - just playing a longer game.
In Today's Words:
We only give up something good when we know we'll get something better later, or avoid something worse.
"Whatever else was either desired or avoided was so, according to him, upon account of its tendency to produce one or other of those sensations."
Context: Explaining how all human motivations trace back to pleasure and pain
This reveals the totalizing nature of this philosophy - there are no exceptions, no higher motivations. Everything reduces to bodily sensations, which Smith will later challenge as incomplete.
In Today's Words:
According to this view, we only want things because they make us feel good or help us avoid feeling bad.
Thematic Threads
Human Motivation
In This Chapter
Smith examines how pleasure-seeking and pain-avoidance drive all human choices, even seemingly noble ones
Development
Builds on earlier discussions of sympathy by revealing the self-interested calculations beneath moral feelings
In Your Life:
You might notice your own 'good' choices often serve your practical interests as much as your principles
Social Expectations
In This Chapter
Epicurus shows how social virtues like justice are really strategies for avoiding social punishment
Development
Deepens the theme by revealing how social pressure creates calculated compliance rather than genuine virtue
In Your Life:
Your workplace behavior might be more about avoiding HR problems than expressing your true values
Self-Knowledge
In This Chapter
Smith suggests we need deeper understanding of why we want approval and respect beyond just their practical benefits
Development
Continues the theme of honest self-examination by questioning our stated motivations
In Your Life:
You might discover that your desire for recognition runs deeper than just wanting the perks that come with it
Personal Growth
In This Chapter
The chapter explores whether true wisdom comes from managing desires or from understanding what we really want
Development
Evolves from external behavior change to internal motivation analysis
In Your Life:
Your growth journey might require examining whether you're changing behaviors or just getting better at justifying them
You now have the context. Time to form your own thoughts.
Discussion Questions
- 1
According to Epicurus, why do people really practice virtues like honesty, courage, and self-control?
analysis • surface - 2
Why does Smith think Epicurus's explanation of human motivation is incomplete, even though it contains some truth?
analysis • medium - 3
Think about someone you know who always does the right thing. Can you identify the personal benefits they gain from their good behavior?
application • medium - 4
How would you design your work or home environment to make virtuous choices the easiest and most beneficial options?
application • deep - 5
What does this chapter reveal about the difference between being genuinely good and being strategically smart?
reflection • deep
Critical Thinking Exercise
Map Your Virtue Calculations
Choose three behaviors you practice regularly that others might call virtuous (being punctual, keeping promises, helping others, staying calm under pressure). For each behavior, write down both the 'noble' reason you tell yourself you do it and the practical benefits it actually brings you. Be brutally honest about what you gain from each choice.
Consider:
- •Notice how your brain packages self-interest as moral principle
- •Look for patterns in what motivates your most consistent good behaviors
- •Consider whether recognizing these benefits makes the behavior less valuable
Journaling Prompt
Write about a time when you stopped doing something 'good' because the personal benefits disappeared. What does this reveal about your true motivations versus your stated values?
Coming Up Next...
Chapter 35: When Good Intentions Aren't Enough
In the next chapter, you'll discover pure benevolence might not be the complete answer to virtue, and learn to balance caring for others with taking care of yourself. These insights reveal timeless patterns that resonate in our own lives and relationships.