Summary
Montaigne explores how the same situation can be judged completely differently depending on perspective, using military examples to show his point. He examines why generals sometimes don't press their advantages after victory - is it wisdom or cowardice? Some argue it shows they're drunk on success and lack killer instinct. Others say it's smart strategy, since cornered enemies fight desperately and can turn the tables. He applies this same logic to whether soldiers should dress richly for battle (inspiring courage vs. creating tempting targets), whether armies should charge or wait (momentum vs. stability), and whether to fight wars at home or abroad (familiar territory vs. avoiding domestic damage). Through each example, Montaigne demonstrates that intelligent people can reach opposite conclusions using sound reasoning. His deeper point is that human judgment is inherently uncertain because we're always working with incomplete information and competing values. Fortune plays a huge role in outcomes, regardless of how carefully we reason. This isn't cause for despair but for intellectual humility. Rather than insisting on one 'correct' view, we should acknowledge that most complex situations allow for multiple valid perspectives. This essay teaches us to hold our opinions more lightly and to understand why reasonable people disagree - a crucial skill for navigating workplace conflicts, family disputes, and political differences.
Coming Up in Chapter 48
From the uncertainty of human judgment, Montaigne turns to examine the relationship between humans and animals, exploring what we can learn from war horses and their noble bearing in battle.
Share it with friends
An excerpt from the original text.(~500 words)
OF THE UNCERTAINTY OF OUR JUDGMENT Well says this verse: [“There is everywhere much liberty of speech.”--Iliad, xx. 249.] For example: [“Hannibal conquered, but knew not how to make the best use of his victorious venture.”--Petrarch, Son., 83.] Such as would improve this argument, and condemn the oversight of our leaders in not pushing home the victory at Moncontour, or accuse the King of Spain of not knowing how to make the best use of the advantage he had against us at St. Quentin, may conclude these oversights to proceed from a soul already drunk with success, or from a spirit which, being full and overgorged with this beginning of good fortune, had lost the appetite of adding to it, already having enough to do to digest what it had taken in: he has his arms full, and can embrace no more: unworthy of the benefit fortune has conferred upon him and the advantage she had put into his hands: for what utility does he reap from it, if, notwithstanding, he give his enemy respite to rally and make head against him? What hope is there that he will dare at another time to attack an enemy reunited and recomposed, and armed anew with anger and revenge, who did not dare to pursue them when routed and unmanned by fear? “Dum fortuna calet, dum conficit omnia terror.” [“Whilst fortune is fresh, and terror finishes all.” --Lucan, vii. 734.] But withal, what better opportunity can he expect than that he has lost? ‘Tis not here, as in fencing, where the most hits gain the prize; for so long as the enemy is on foot, the game is new to begin, and that is not to be called a victory that puts not an end to the war. In the encounter where Caesar had the worst, near the city of Oricum, he reproached Pompey’s soldiers that he had been lost had their general known how to overcome; and afterwards clawed him in a very different fashion when it came to his turn. But why may not a man also argue, on the contrary, that it is the effect of a precipitous and insatiate spirit not to know how to bound and restrain its coveting; that it is to abuse the favours of God to exceed the measure He has prescribed them: and that again to throw a man’s self into danger after a victory obtained is again to expose himself to the mercy of fortune: that it is one of the greatest discretions in the rule of war not to drive an enemy to despair? Sylla and Marius in the social war, having defeated the Marsians, seeing yet a body of reserve that, prompted by despair, was coming on like enraged brutes to dash in upon them, thought it not convenient to stand their charge. Had not Monsieur de Foix’s ardour transported him so furiously to pursue the remains of the victory of Ravenna, he had not obscured it by his own...
Master this chapter. Complete your experience
Purchase the complete book to access all chapters and support classic literature
As an Amazon Associate, we earn a small commission from qualifying purchases at no additional cost to you.
Available in paperback, hardcover, and e-book formats
Intelligence Amplifier™ Analysis
The Road of Competing Truths
Intelligent people reach opposite conclusions using equally valid reasoning because complex situations contain multiple legitimate perspectives.
Why This Matters
Connect literature to life
This chapter teaches how to recognize when intelligent disagreement stems from different values rather than faulty reasoning.
Practice This Today
This week, notice when you hear two people arguing—before picking sides, identify what valid concern each person is trying to address.
Now let's explore the literary elements.
Terms to Know
Judgment
Montaigne's central concept - our ability to evaluate situations and make decisions. He argues that human judgment is inherently flawed because we never have complete information and our perspectives are limited.
Modern Usage:
This shows up every time we second-guess decisions at work or wonder if we made the right call in a relationship.
Fortune
The unpredictable force that shapes outcomes regardless of our planning or reasoning. Montaigne sees fortune as a major player in all human affairs, often determining success or failure.
Modern Usage:
We call it luck, timing, or 'being in the right place at the right time' - those factors beyond our control that affect our lives.
Perspective
The idea that the same event can be interpreted completely differently depending on your viewpoint, values, and circumstances. Montaigne uses this to show why reasonable people disagree.
Modern Usage:
This explains why your family can watch the same news story and come to totally opposite conclusions about what happened.
Military strategy
Montaigne uses battlefield decisions as examples because they show high-stakes choices where smart people can disagree. Should you press an advantage or show restraint?
Modern Usage:
Similar to workplace decisions about when to push for a promotion versus when to lay low and consolidate your position.
Intellectual humility
Montaigne's core message - recognizing the limits of our own knowledge and being open to other viewpoints rather than insisting we're always right.
Modern Usage:
The ability to say 'I might be wrong' or 'I can see your point' instead of digging in during arguments.
Uncertainty
The state of not knowing for sure what the right answer is. Montaigne argues this is the normal human condition, not a problem to be solved.
Modern Usage:
The feeling you get when facing big life decisions like changing jobs or ending relationships - there's no guarantee either choice is 'right.'
Characters in This Chapter
Hannibal
Historical example
The famous general who defeated Romans but didn't march on Rome itself. Montaigne uses him to show how the same decision can be seen as either brilliant restraint or fatal hesitation.
Modern Equivalent:
The CEO who wins a big contract but doesn't expand the company
King of Spain
Historical example
Another military leader who had a major victory but didn't follow through completely. Represents the pattern of leaders who succeed but then hold back.
Modern Equivalent:
The politician who wins an election but doesn't push their agenda
Montaigne
Narrator/philosopher
The voice examining these examples and drawing conclusions about human nature. He's not taking sides but showing how both interpretations make sense.
Modern Equivalent:
The therapist who helps you see both sides of your relationship conflicts
Key Quotes & Analysis
"There is everywhere much liberty of speech"
Context: Opening the essay about how freely people judge others' decisions
Montaigne notes how quick everyone is to criticize choices made under pressure, especially in hindsight. This sets up his main point about the difficulty of judgment.
In Today's Words:
Everyone's got an opinion about what you should have done differently.
"Hannibal conquered, but knew not how to make the best use of his victorious venture"
Context: Presenting the common criticism of Hannibal's strategy
This represents the conventional wisdom that Hannibal failed by not pressing his advantage. Montaigne will show this isn't the only way to see it.
In Today's Words:
Hannibal won the battle but blew his chance to win the war.
"Whilst fortune is fresh, and terror finishes all"
Context: Arguing for why leaders should strike while the enemy is still shaken
This captures the 'strike while the iron is hot' philosophy - that momentum matters more than careful planning. It's one valid approach to decision-making.
In Today's Words:
Hit them while they're down and scared.
Thematic Threads
Judgment
In This Chapter
Montaigne demonstrates how the same military decision can be judged as wisdom or cowardice depending on perspective
Development
Introduced here
In Your Life:
You might judge a coworker's caution as smart planning or frustrating indecision based on your own priorities
Uncertainty
In This Chapter
Multiple valid strategic approaches exist for the same military situation, showing inherent uncertainty in decision-making
Development
Introduced here
In Your Life:
You face uncertainty when choosing between job security and career advancement, with valid arguments for both paths
Perspective
In This Chapter
The same action appears completely different when viewed through different strategic frameworks
Development
Introduced here
In Your Life:
Your teenager's behavior might seem rebellious from a parent's view but independence-seeking from their perspective
Humility
In This Chapter
Montaigne advocates holding opinions lightly rather than insisting on one correct view
Development
Introduced here
In Your Life:
You might practice intellectual humility by acknowledging valid points in political discussions rather than dismissing opposing views
Fortune
In This Chapter
Random chance affects military outcomes regardless of how carefully leaders reason through their decisions
Development
Introduced here
In Your Life:
You might recognize how luck influences your career success alongside your hard work and planning
You now have the context. Time to form your own thoughts.
Discussion Questions
- 1
What examples does Montaigne give to show how the same military decision can be judged as both wise and foolish?
analysis • surface - 2
Why does Montaigne think intelligent people can reach opposite conclusions using equally sound reasoning?
analysis • medium - 3
Think of a recent disagreement at work or in your family. How might both sides have been using valid reasoning?
application • medium - 4
When you're in a heated disagreement, how could recognizing this pattern of 'competing truths' change your approach?
application • deep - 5
What does this essay suggest about the limits of human judgment and the role of humility in decision-making?
reflection • deep
Critical Thinking Exercise
Map the Competing Truths
Think of a current disagreement in your life - maybe about money, parenting, work policies, or family decisions. Write down the strongest argument for each side, identifying the valid concerns and values driving each position. Don't try to prove who's right; instead, map out why reasonable people landed on opposite sides.
Consider:
- •What underlying values or priorities is each side protecting?
- •What evidence or experience is each side drawing from?
- •Where might both sides have legitimate points worth addressing?
Journaling Prompt
Write about a time when you changed your mind about something important. What made you see the other perspective as valid? How did that shift change your approach to similar disagreements?
Coming Up Next...
Chapter 48: War Horses and the Art of Control
What lies ahead teaches us mastery of tools shapes your effectiveness in high-stakes situations, and shows us understanding the limits of your resources prevents dangerous overconfidence. These patterns appear in literature and life alike.