Summary
Marx breaks down the cold mathematics behind why workers often feel like they're running faster just to stay in place. He examines three scenarios that every working person recognizes: when technology makes jobs more productive, when work becomes more intense, and when hours get longer. The key insight is brutal in its simplicity—when a factory gets more efficient machines, the extra value created doesn't automatically flow to workers' paychecks. Instead, it often increases profits while wages stay flat or even fall relative to the wealth being created. Marx shows how a worker might produce twice as much value per hour due to better equipment, but see no corresponding increase in pay because their 'necessary' living costs haven't changed. The chapter reveals why productivity bonuses are rare and why 'doing more with less' usually means workers doing more while owners keep the 'less.' This isn't about greed or conspiracy—it's about how the system naturally operates when labor is treated as just another cost to minimize. Marx demonstrates that even when wages rise nominally, workers can still lose ground if the value they're creating grows faster than their compensation. The math explains why so many people feel economically squeezed despite living in increasingly productive societies.
Coming Up in Chapter 18
Next, Marx will show you the various formulas economists use to calculate exactly how much value gets extracted from workers—and why understanding these equations matters for anyone trying to make sense of their paycheck.
Share it with friends
An excerpt from the original text.(~500 words)
CHANGES OF MAGNITUDE IN THE PRICE OF LABOUR-POWER AND IN SURPLUS-VALUE Economic Manuscripts: Capital Vol. I - Chapter Seventeen Karl Marx. Capital Volume One Chapter Seventeen: Changes of Magnitude in the Price of Labour-Power and in Surplus-Value Contents Section 1 - Length of the Working-Day and Intensity of Labour Constant. Productiveness of Labour Variable Section 2 - Working-Day Constant. Productiveness of Labour Constant. Intensity of Labour Variable Section 3 - Productiveness and Intensity of Labour Constant. Length of the Working-Day Variable Section 4 - Simultaneous Variations in the Duration, Productiveness, and Intensity of Labour A. Diminishing Productiveness of Labour with a Simultaneous Lengthening of the Working-Day B. Increasing Intensity and Productiveness of Labour with Simultaneous Shortening of the Working-Day The value of labour-power is determined by the value of the necessaries of life habitually required by the average labourer. The quantity of these necessaries is known at any given epoch of a given society, and can therefore be treated as a constant magnitude. What changes, is the value of this quantity. There are, besides, two other factors that enter into the determination of the value of labour-power. One, the expenses of developing that power, which expenses vary with the mode of production; the other, its natural diversity, the difference between the labour-power of men and women, of children and adults. The employment of these different sorts of labour-power, an employment which is, in its turn, made necessary by the mode of production, makes a great difference in the cost of maintaining the family of the labourer, and in the value of the labour-power of the adult male. Both these factors, however, are excluded in the following investigation. I assume (1) that commodities are sold at their value; (2) that the price of labour-power rises occasionally above its value, but never sinks below it. On this assumption we have seen that the relative magnitudes of surplus-value and of price of labour-power are determined by three circumstances; (1) the length of the working-day, or the extensive magnitude of labour; (2) the normal intensity of labour, its intensive magnitude, whereby a given quantity of labour is expended in a given time; (3) the productiveness of labour, whereby the same quantum of labour yields, in a given time, a greater or less quantum of product, dependent on the degree of development in the conditions of production. Very different combinations are clearly possible, according as one of the three factors is constant and two variable, or two constant and one variable, or lastly, all three simultaneously variable. And the number of these combinations is augmented by the fact that, when these factors simultaneously vary, the amount and direction of their respective variations may differ. In what follows the chief combinations alone are considered. SECTION 1 LENGTH OF THE WORKING-DAY AND INTENSITY OF LABOUR CONSTANT. PRODUCTIVENESS OF LABOUR VARIABLE. On these assumptions the value of labour-power, and the magnitude of surplus-value, are determined by three laws. (1.) A working day of given length always creates the...
Master this chapter. Complete your experience
Purchase the complete book to access all chapters and support classic literature
As an Amazon Associate, we earn a small commission from qualifying purchases at no additional cost to you.
Available in paperback, hardcover, and e-book formats
Intelligence Amplifier™ Analysis
The Productivity Trap - When Working Harder Means Getting Less
When systems become more efficient, the increased value rarely flows to the people doing the work, creating a trap where working harder yields proportionally less reward.
Why This Matters
Connect literature to life
This chapter teaches how to identify when productivity improvements benefit owners rather than workers.
Practice This Today
This week, notice when new technology or processes are introduced at your workplace—ask immediately how the efficiency gains will be shared rather than waiting to see if benefits trickle down.
Now let's explore the literary elements.
Terms to Know
Labour-power
A worker's ability to work - their skills, strength, and time sold to an employer. Marx treats this as a commodity that has a price (wages) determined by what it costs to keep the worker alive and able to work tomorrow.
Modern Usage:
When we talk about 'human resources' or negotiate hourly wages, we're putting a price on our labour-power.
Surplus-value
The extra value a worker creates beyond what they're paid. If you produce $100 worth of goods in an hour but earn $15, that $85 difference is surplus-value that becomes profit.
Modern Usage:
This explains why companies can afford massive CEO bonuses while claiming they can't afford worker raises - they're capturing the surplus-value.
Productiveness of labour
How much value a worker can create in a given time, usually increased by better tools or technology. When a cashier gets a faster scanner, their productiveness increases.
Modern Usage:
Every time your workplace gets 'upgraded' with new software or equipment that lets you handle more customers per hour.
Intensity of labour
How hard or fast workers have to work during their shift. Same hours, but more effort packed into each minute - like a nurse handling more patients or a driver making more deliveries.
Modern Usage:
When your boss says 'we need to do more with less' or when understaffing means everyone works twice as hard.
Necessaries of life
The basic things a worker needs to survive and show up to work - food, housing, clothing, transportation. Marx argues wages are set by these survival costs, not by how much value workers create.
Modern Usage:
Why minimum wage debates focus on 'living wage' calculations based on rent, groceries, and basic expenses in each area.
Mode of production
The economic system and technology that shapes how work gets organized and who gets what. Changes how much training workers need and what kinds of jobs exist.
Modern Usage:
How the shift from manufacturing to service economy changed what skills workers need and how much employers will pay for them.
Characters in This Chapter
The average labourer
Representative worker
Marx uses this figure to show how wages are calculated based on survival needs rather than value created. Represents all workers whose pay is determined by what they need to live, not what they produce.
Modern Equivalent:
The typical worker whose paycheck covers bills but doesn't reflect how much money they make for their company
The capitalist
Employer/owner
The one who benefits from changes in productivity and intensity. Gets to keep the extra value when workers become more productive through better equipment or working harder.
Modern Equivalent:
The business owner who pockets the savings when new technology makes workers more efficient
Key Quotes & Analysis
"The value of labour-power is determined by the value of the necessaries of life habitually required by the average labourer."
Context: Explaining how wages are actually set in the economy
This reveals why wages often stay flat even when companies become more profitable. Your pay isn't based on how much money you make for your employer - it's based on what you need to survive and keep working.
In Today's Words:
Your paycheck is calculated by what you need to pay rent and buy groceries, not by how much profit you generate.
"What changes, is the value of this quantity."
Context: Discussing how the cost of basic necessities fluctuates over time
Even when wages go up, workers might not be better off if the cost of living rises faster. The amount of stuff you can actually buy with your paycheck is what matters, not the dollar amount.
In Today's Words:
Getting a raise doesn't help if rent and groceries went up even more.
"The employment of these different sorts of labour-power makes a great difference in the cost of maintaining the labouring class."
Context: Explaining why employers prefer certain types of workers
This shows why employers often prefer to hire workers they can pay less - women, young people, or immigrants. It's not just prejudice, it's a calculated business decision based on who will accept lower wages.
In Today's Words:
Companies hire whoever they can pay the least while still getting the work done.
Thematic Threads
Class
In This Chapter
Marx mathematically demonstrates how class positions determine who captures productivity gains, with workers creating more value while owners reap the benefits
Development
Building on earlier chapters about labor value, now showing the specific mechanics of how class advantage operates through productivity improvements
In Your Life:
You might notice this when your workplace gets new technology that makes you more productive, but your pay and hours stay the same while company profits grow
Economic Power
In This Chapter
The chapter reveals how economic power determines the distribution of gains from increased efficiency, with those who own the means of production capturing the surplus
Development
Deepens the earlier analysis of capital ownership by showing how it translates into concrete advantage during productivity improvements
In Your Life:
You experience this when efficiency improvements at work benefit management and shareholders while your workload increases without proportional compensation
System Logic
In This Chapter
Marx shows how the capitalist system naturally channels productivity gains toward profit rather than worker benefit, regardless of individual intentions
Development
Continues the systematic analysis from previous chapters, now focusing on the mathematical inevitability of certain outcomes
In Your Life:
You see this when well-meaning bosses implement efficiency measures that somehow always end up squeezing workers rather than improving their conditions
Labor Value
In This Chapter
The chapter demonstrates how the value workers create through increased productivity exceeds what they receive in wages, with the gap representing surplus value
Development
Builds directly on the labor theory of value from earlier chapters, now showing how productivity changes affect this dynamic
In Your Life:
You might recognize this when you produce significantly more output due to better tools or training, but your compensation doesn't reflect your increased contribution
False Progress
In This Chapter
Marx reveals how apparent progress through productivity improvements can actually worsen workers' relative position even as absolute conditions might improve slightly
Development
Introduces a new dimension to the class analysis by showing how progress itself can be a form of exploitation
In Your Life:
You experience this when technological advances make your job easier in some ways but more demanding overall, leaving you feeling like you're falling behind despite working in a more 'advanced' environment
You now have the context. Time to form your own thoughts.
Discussion Questions
- 1
Marx shows three ways productivity improvements can play out. What are they, and which one typically happens in real workplaces?
analysis • surface - 2
Why don't workers automatically get paid more when they become more productive? What determines their wages instead?
analysis • medium - 3
Think about your workplace or one you know well. Can you identify a time when new technology or processes made work more efficient? Who benefited from that efficiency?
application • medium - 4
If you're facing a situation where your job is becoming more productive but your pay isn't increasing, what strategies would you use to capture more of the value you're creating?
application • deep - 5
What does this pattern reveal about how economic systems naturally distribute the benefits of progress? Is this inevitable or changeable?
reflection • deep
Critical Thinking Exercise
Track Your Productivity Gains
Think of your current or most recent job. Identify one way technology, training, or new processes has made you more productive over the past year. Calculate roughly how much extra value you now create per hour compared to before. Then trace where those gains went—did they show up in your paycheck, reduce your hours, or benefit someone else?
Consider:
- •Consider both obvious changes (new software, equipment) and subtle ones (streamlined procedures, better training)
- •Think about value in terms your employer cares about: more customers served, faster turnaround, fewer errors
- •Remember that productivity gains often appear as 'doing the same work with fewer people' rather than 'doing more work with the same people'
Journaling Prompt
Write about a time when you worked significantly harder or more efficiently but didn't see the benefits in your paycheck. How did that feel, and what would you do differently if faced with that situation again?
Coming Up Next...
Chapter 18: The Math That Hides Exploitation
What lies ahead teaches us different ways of calculating profit can hide the true extent of worker exploitation, and shows us the most common business formulas make exploitation look smaller than it really is. These patterns appear in literature and life alike.